Angol nyelvhasználat tanítóknak és óvodapedagógusoknak

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- 1. Introduction to time, tense and aspect
  - 1.1 The difference between times and tenses
  - 1.2 Aspects
  - 1.3 State verbs and action verbs
- 2. Past time
  - 2.1 Past simple
  - 2.2 Past continuous
  - 2.3 The difference between the past simple and the past continuous
  - 2.4 Past perfect
  - 2.5 The difference between the past simple and the past perfect
  - 2.6 Past perfect continuous
  - 2.7 The difference between the past perfect and the past perfect continuous
  - 2.8 Present simple to express past
  - 2.9 USED TO for past habits
  - Exercise 1
  - Exercise 2
  - Exercise 3
  - Exercise 4
  - Exercise 5
- 3. Present time
  - 3.1 Present simple
  - 3.2 Present continuous
  - 3.3 Present perfect
  - 3.4 Present perfect continuous
  - Exercise 1
  - Exercise 2
  - Exercise 3
  - Exercise 4
  - Exercise 5
- 4. Future time
  - 4.1 Future simple
  - 4.2 Future continuous
  - 4.3 Future perfect
  - 4.4 Future perfect continuous
  - 4.5 BE GOING TO
  - 4.6 Present simple for fixed future events
  - 4.7 Present continuous for fixed future arrangements
  - 4.8 The difference between WILL, BE GOING TO and the present continuous for future events
  - 4.9 Future time clauses
  - Exercise 1
  - Exercise 2
  - Exercise 3
  - Exercise 4
  - Exercise 5
- 5. Modals
  - 5.1 Types of modals
  - 5.2 Modals to express ability: CAN, COULD, BE ABLE TO
  - 5.3 Modals to express advice: SHOULD, OUGHT TO, HAD BETTER
  - 5.4 Modals to express criticism: CAN, COULD, MIGHT, SHOULD
  - 5.5 Modals to express deduction: MUST, CAN'T, COULDN'T
  - 5.6 USED TO
  - 5.7 Modals to express intentions: BE GOING TO, WILL
  - 5.8 Modals to express obligation: MUST, HAVE (GOT) TO
  - 5.9 NEED
  - 5.10 Modals to express obligation: SHOULD, OUGHT TO
  - 5.11 Modals to express offers: CAN, COULD, WILL, SHALL, MAY
  - 5.12 Modals to express permission / prohibition: CAN, COULD, MAY, MIGHT, BE ALLOWED TO, MUSTN'T
  - 5.13 Modals to express possibility: MAY, MIGHT, COULD
  - 5.14 Modals to express predictions: BE GOING TO, WILL
  - 5.15 Modals to express requests: CAN, COULD, WILL, WOULD
  - 5.16 Modals to express suggestions: SHOULD, COULD, MIGHT, SHALL
  - 5.17 The modal WOULD to express unreal situations
  - 5.18 Overview of modals
  - 5.19 Modals and adverbs
  - Exercise 1
  - Exercise 2
  - Exercise 3
  - Exercise 4
  - Exercise 5
- 6. Conditionals and unreal tenses
  - 6.1 Unreal tenses
  - 6.2 Conditionals
    - 6.2.1 Zero conditional
    - 6.2.2 First conditional
    - 6.2.3 Second conditional
    - 6.2.4 Third conditional
    - 6.2.5 Mixed conditionals
    - 6.2.6 IF, EVEN IF, ONLY IF, AS LONG AS, PROVIDED, SUPPOSING, UNLESS, IF NECESSARY, IF SO etc.
  - 6.3 WISH / IF ONLY
  - 6.4 IT'S (HIGH) TIME
  - 6.5 AS IF / AS THOUGH
  - 6.6 WOULD RATHER / WOULD SOONER
  - Exercise 1
  - Exercise 2
  - Exercise 3
  - Exercise 4
  - Exercise 5
- 7. Indirect speech
  - 7.1 The difference between direct and indirect speech
  - 7.2 Punctuation in direct speech
  - 7.3 Changes in indirect speech
  - 7.4 Reporting questions
  - 7.5 Reporting statements
  - 7.6 Reporting imperatives
  - 7.7 Reporting verb + THAT-clause
  - 7.8 Reporting verb + THAT-clause with SHOULD + infinitive
  - 7.9 Reporting verb + THAT-clause with the present subjunctive
  - 7.10 Reporting verb + gerund
  - 7.11 Reporting verb + TO-infinitive
  - 7.12 Reporting verb + object + TO-infinitive
  - 7.13 SAY, TELL and ASK
  - 7.14 Impersonal reporting
  - Exercise 1
  - Exercise 2
  - Exercise 3
  - Exercise 4
  - Exercise 5
  - Exercise 6
- Progress test 1
  - Exercise 1
  - Exercise 2
  - Exercise 3
  - Exercise 4
  - Exercise 5
- 8. Passive voice and causative structures
  - 8.1 Passive voice
    - 8.1.1 The difference between the active and passive voice
    - 8.1.2 Form: passive voice
    - 8.1.3 Verbs which cannot be used in the passive voice
    - 8.1.4 Ditransitive verbs in the passive voice
    - 8.1.5 The agent with the passive voice
    - 8.1.6 The use of the passive voice
    - 8.1.7 The passive with GET
    - 8.1.8 Passive voice with reporting verbs
  - 8.2 Causative structures
    - 8.2.1 Causative structures without an agent
    - 8.2.2 Causative structures with an agent
  - Exercise 1
  - Exercise 2
  - Exercise 3
  - Exercise 4
  - Exercise 5
  - Exercise 6
- 9. Non-finite verb forms
  - 9.1 The difference between finite and non-finite verb forms
  - 9.2 The infinitive
    - 9.2.1 The forms of the infinitive
    - 9.2.2 The "subject" of the infinitive
    - 9.2.3 The TO-infinitive to replace a relative clause
    - 9.2.4 The TO-infinitive after passive reporting verbs
    - 9.2.5 The infinitive after modals
    - 9.2.6 DO, DOES, DID + bare infinitive
    - 9.2.7 SEE, WATCH, HEAR, LISTEN, FEEL, SMELL, NOTICE + object + bare infinitive
    - 9.2.8 APPEAR, HAPPEN, PROVE, SEEM, TEND, TURN OUT + TO-infinitive
    - 9.2.9 HAVE, GET, LET, MAKE + object + infinitive
    - 9.2.10 Verb + TO-infinitive
    - 9.2.11 Verb + object + TO-infinitive
    - 9.2.12 Adjective + TO-infinitive
    - 9.2.13 The infinitive of purpose
    - 9.2.14 The infinitive of result
    - 9.2.15 Question word + TO-infinitive
    - 9.2.16 Introductory infinitive clauses
  - 9.3 The gerund
    - 9.3.1 The forms of the gerund
    - 9.3.2 The "subject" of the gerund
    - 9.3.3 The gerund as subject
    - 9.3.4 The gerund as a subject complement
    - 9.3.5 The gerund as the object of a verb
    - 9.3.6 Verb + gerund
    - 9.3.7 Preposition + gerund
    - 9.3.8 Verb + preposition + gerund
    - 9.3.9 The gerund used in compound nouns
    - 9.3.10 Other expressions followed by the gerund
    - 9.3.11 Verbs followed by the TO-infinitive or gerund with no difference in meaning
    - 9.3.12 Verbs followed by the TO-infinitive or gerund with a difference in meaning
  - 9.4 The participle
    - 9.4.1 The forms of the participle
    - 9.4.2 The "subject" of the participle
    - 9.4.3 The present participle used to form the continuous aspect
    - 9.4.4 The past participle used to form the perfect aspect
    - 9.4.5 The past participle used to form the passive voice
    - 9.4.6 The present and past participles used as adjectives
    - 9.4.7 SEE, WATCH, HEAR, LISTEN, FEEL, SMELL, NOTICE + object + present participle
    - 9.4.8 CATCH, FIND, LEAVE + object + present participle
    - 9.4.9 COME, GO + present participle
    - 9.4.10 SPEND, WASTE + object + present participle
    - 9.4.11 HAVE, GET + object + past participle
    - 9.4.12 Participle clauses
  - 9.5 The difference between the gerund and the present participle
  - Exercise 1
  - Exercise 2
  - Exercise 3
  - Exercise 4
  - Exercise 5
- 10. Relative clauses
  - 10.1 What is a relative clause?
  - 10.2 Defining relative clause
  - 10.3 Non-defining relative clause
  - 10.4 The difference between defining and non-defining relative clauses
  - 10.5 Sentential relative clause
  - 10.6 Relative pronouns: WHO, WHOM, WHOSE, WHICH, THAT
  - 10.7 Relative adverbs: WHERE, WHEN, WHY
  - 10.8 Prepositions in relative clauses
  - 10.9 Non-finite relative clauses
  - 10.10 WHAT and WHATEVER
  - 10.11 Cleft sentences
  - 10.12 Pseudo-cleft sentences
  - Exercise 1
  - Exercise 2
  - Exercise 3
  - Exercise 4
  - Exercise 5
  - Exercise 6
- 11. Inversion
  - 11.1 What is inversion?
  - 11.2 Subject-verb inversion
    - 11.2.1 Subject-verb inversion after place adverbials
    - 11.2.2 Subject-verb inversion in direct speech
    - 11.2.3 Subject-verb inversion in news headlines
  - 11.3 Subject-auxiliary inversion
    - 11.3.1 Subject-auxiliary inversion after negative adverbials
    - 11.3.2 Subject-auxiliary inversion in questions
    - 11.3.3 Subject-auxiliary inversion in question tags
    - 11.3.4 Subject-auxiliary inversion in echo tags
    - 11.3.5 Subject-auxiliary inversion with SO and NEITHER/NOR to express agreement
  - Exercise 1
  - Exercise 2
  - Exercise 3
  - Exercise 4
  - Exercise 5
- 12. Articles and nouns
  - 12.1 Articles
    - 12.1.1 The indefinite article (A, AN)
    - 12.1.2 The definite article (THE)
    - 12.1.3 The zero article (-)
  - 12.2 Countable and uncountable nouns
    - 12.2.1 The difference between countable and uncountable nouns
    - 12.2.2 Nouns with countable and uncountable meanings
    - 12.2.3 Determiners with countable and uncountable nouns (SOME, ANY, NO, MANY, MUCH, FEW, LITTLE etc.)
    - 12.2.4 Partitive expressions with uncountable nouns
    - 12.2.5 Nouns which are always plural
    - 12.2.6 Nouns with a plural form and a singular meaning
    - 12.2.7 Nouns with the same singular and plural forms
    - 12.2.8 Irregular plural forms
  - Exercise 1
  - Exercise 2
  - Exercise 3
  - Exercise 4
  - Exercise 5
  - Exercise 6
  - Exercise 7
- Progress test 2
  - Exercise 1
  - Exercise 2
  - Exercise 3
  - Exercise 4
  - Exercise 5
- Appendix
  - Irregular verb forms
  - Spelling rules

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# 7.3 Changes in indirect speech

In order to understand changes in indirect speech, we must bear in mind that words are always spoken in context: somebody says something to someone at a specific place and time. When we report something, changes are made to the original words if there are changes in the context (people, place or time).

## Changes in place, time and person in indirect speech

No changes are made to words referring to place, time or person if we report something at the same place, around the same time, or involving the same people:

> Dimitrios: I'll meet you here.
> Dimitrios said he would meet me here. (reported at the same place)

> Cara: My train leaves at 9.30 tomorrow.
> Cara says her train leaves at 9.30 tomorrow. (reported on the same day)

> Richard: I can help you, Stephanie.
> I told you I could help you. (reported by Richard to Stephanie)
> I told Stephanie I could help her. (reported by Richard to a third person)

Changes are made if there are changes in place, time or people:

> Dimitrios: I'll meet you here.
> Dimitrios said he would meet me at the café. (reported at a different place)

> Cara: My train leaves at 9.30 tomorrow.
> Cara said her train leaves at 9.30 today. (reported on the next day)

> Richard: I can help you, Stephanie.
> Richard told me he could help me. (reported by Stephanie)
> Richard told Stephanie he could help her. (reported by a third person)
> I told Stephanie I could help her. (reported by Richard to a third person)

The following table shows some typical changes of time expressions in indirect speech. Bear in mind that the changes are not automatic; they depend on the context:

Direct speech | Indirect speech
--- | ---
now | then / at that time
tonight | last night, that night, on Monday night
today | yesterday, that day, on Monday
yesterday | the day before / the previous day, on Sunday
last night | the previous night / the night before, on Sunday night
tomorrow | today, the following day, on Tuesday
this week | last week, that week
last month | the previous month / the month before, in June
next year | this year, the following year / the year after, in 1996
five minutes ago | five minutes before
in two hours' time | two hours later

## Tense changes in indirect speech

### No tense changes

There are no tense changes in indirect speech if:

- the reporting verb is in a present tense; this is often the case with simultaneous reporting or when the original words were spoken a short time ago and are still relevant:

  > Joanna: I have just arrived in Hanoi.
  > Joanna says she has just arrived in Hanoi. (reporting a recent telephone conversation; the reporting verb say is in present simple)

- the reported words are true at the time of reporting:

  > George: I'm meeting Karen tomorrow.
  > George said he is meeting Karen tomorrow. (reported on the same day, tomorrow still refers to tomorrow)

  Compare:

  > George said he was meeting Karen the following day. (reported days later, the meeting has already happened)

- the reported words express a general truth:

  > Copernicus: The planets revolve around the sun.
  > Copernicus stated that the planets revolve around the sun. (it is a general truth)

  Compare:

  > Once, people believed that the earth was flat. (the reported words are no longer true; people do not believe that the earth is flat)

- the reported words refer to an unreal situation:

  > Mike: I wish I was a year older; then I could enter the race.
  > Mike wished he was a year older, so he could enter the race. (he is not older)

### Tense changes

Tenses change in indirect speech if:

- the reported words are no longer true or are out-of-date; this is often the case when we report something after the reference point of the original statement and the reporting verb is in a past tense:

  > Philip in 1980: I have never been to Brunei, but I'm thinking about going there. (the reference point of the present perfect and the present continuous is 1980)
  > When I met Philip in 1980, he said he had never been to Brunei, but he was thinking about going there. (reported years later; the reported words are out of date)

- we want to report objectively; when we do not know whether the reported words are true, and we do not want to suggest that they are:

  > Tim: Sorry, I can't go to work this week. I'm ill.
  > Tim isn't coming to work this week. He said that he was ill.

### Tense backshift

As can be seen in the examples above, the verbs in the present perfect, present continuous and present simple tenses in the original statements changed into their corresponding past equivalents (past perfect, past continuous and past simple) in indirect speech. This process is called tense backshift. Note that tense backshift is based on how tenses relate to each other in general:

> When I met Philip in 1980, he said he had never been to Brunei.
> When I arrived at work, I remembered that I hadn't locked the door to my apartment.
> (two consecutive actions and an earlier action)

> When I met Philip in 1980, he said he was thinking about going to Brunei.
> When I entered the room, I saw that she was studying.
> (two consecutive actions and a background action in progress)

> Tim said that he was ill.
> I went outside. It was a warm day.
> (a past action and a past state)

Tense backshift:

Direct speech | Indirect speech
--- | ---
present simple | past simple
present continuous | past continuous
present perfect | past perfect
present perfect continuous | past perfect continuous
past simple | past perfect
past continuous | past perfect continuous

The past perfect and past perfect continuous tenses do not change.

In complex sentences, the past simple and past continuous may remain unchanged if the temporal relationship between the events in the clauses is clear from the context:

> John: When I got home, I went to bed straight away.
> John told me that when he got home he went to bed straight away.

> Bill: I was reading a book when I heard the crash.
> Bill said that he was reading a book when he heard the crash.

> Helen: When I was writing my thesis, I spent a lot of time at the library.
> Helen recalled that when she was writing her thesis she spent a lot of time at the library.

> Tim: My friends were enjoying themselves playing cards while I was studying in my room.
> Tim grumbled that his friends were enjoying themselves playing cards while he was studying in his room.

> Chris: When I got to her house, she had been waiting for hours.
> Chris said that when he got to her house she had been waiting for hours.

## Modal changes in indirect speech

Similarly to tenses, modals change in indirect speech if the reported words are no longer true or are out-of-date:

Direct speech | Indirect speech
--- | ---
can (ability, present) | could
can (ability, future) | would be able to
may (possibility) | might
may (permission, present) | could
may (permission, future) | would be allowed to
must (obligation, present) | must / had to
must (obligation, future) | must / would have to
needn't (necessity, present) | didn't have to / didn't need to
needn't (necessity, future) | wouldn't have to
shall (future time) | would
shall (offers, suggestions) | should
will | would

The following modals do not change:

Modals which do not change in indirect speech
could would might must (deduction) mustn't had better should ought to used to

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